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Culture of India
Nearly one sixth of all the human beings on Earth live in India, the
world s most populous democracy. Officially titled the Republic of
India, it s 1,269,413 sq. mi. lie in South Asia, occupying most of the
Indian subcontinent, bordered by Pakistan (W); China, Nepal, and Bhutan
(N); and Myanmar (E) and Bangladesh forms an enclave in the NE. Its
borders encompass a vast variety of peoples, practicing most of the
world s major religions, speaking scores of different languages, divided
into thousands of socially exclusive castes, and combining the physical
traits of several major racial groups (Compton s).
The modern nation of India (also known by its ancient Hindi name,
Bharat) is smaller than the Indian Empire formerly ruled by Britain.
Burma (now Myanmar), a mainly Buddhist country lying to the east, was
administratively detached from India in 1937. Ten years later, when
Britain granted independence to the peoples of the Indian subcontinent,
two regions with Muslim majorities--a large one in the northwest (West
Pakistan) and a smaller one in the northeast (East Pakistan)--were
partitioned from the predominantly Hindu areas and became the separate
nation of Pakistan. East Pakistan broke away from Pakistan in 1971 to
form the independent nation of Bangladesh. Also bordering India on its
long northern frontier are the People s Republic of China and the
relatively small kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. The island republic of
Sri Lanka lies just off India s southern tip (New World Encyclopedia).
Much of India s area of almost 1.3 million square miles (3.3 million
square kilometers--including the Pakistani-held part of Jammu and
Kashmir) is a peninsula jutting into the Indian Ocean between the
Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. There are
three distinct physiographic regions. In the north the high peaks of the
Himalayas lie partly in India but mostly just beyond its borders in
Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. South of the mountains, the low-lying
Indo-Gangetic Plain, shared with Pakistan and Bangladesh, extends more
than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of
Bengal (Compton s). Finally, the peninsular tableland, largely the
Deccan, together with its adjacent coastal plains, makes up more than
half of the nation s area.
In general, India s climate is governed by the monsoon, or seasonal,
rain-bearing wind. Most of the country has three seasons: hot, wet, and
cool. During the hot season, which usually lasts from early March to
mid-June, very high temperatures are accompanied by intermittent winds
and occasional dust storms (Concise).
Strong, humid winds from the southwest and south usually lasts from
early March to mid-June, very high temperatures are accompanied by
intermittent winds and occasional dust storms.
Most of the far northeast (north and east of Bangladesh), northern West
Bengal, and the west coast from Cochin to somewhat north of Bombay get
more than 80 inches (200 centimeters) of rainfall annually. This is
usually enough to keep the soil moist throughout the year. The natural
vegetation associated with these regions is an exceedingly varied,
broadleaf, evergreen rain forest, typically tall and dense. Much of the
rain forest, however, is in hilly regions that have been repeatedly
burned over and cleared for slash-and-burn agriculture, a type of
farming particularly associated with India s tribal population. As a
result, the soil has become less fertile. Where the forest has grown
again, it is generally lower and less open than the original vegetation
(New World Encyclopedia).
It is not certain which racial group first occupied India. The
assumption is often made that the first inhabitants had characteristics
in common with the small-statured, dark, aboriginal population of
Australia, as well as with other tribal groups still found in isolated,
forested regions of Southeast Asia. Therefore, the term proto-Australoid
has been applied to the racial type represented by a number of tribes
still living in India, mainly in the states of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya
Pradesh. Other early arrivals were the ancestors of the peoples, now
living mainly in southern India, who speak languages of the Dravidian
family. The Mongoloid peoples have also been in India a long time. Their
present-day descendants include several tribal groups living along the
frontiers with Myanmar, China (Tibet), Bhutan, and Nepal.
Linguistic differences are much clearer than those of racial groupings.
Two linguistic groups, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian, account for all
but a tiny proportion of the population (Compton s). Of the Indo-Aryan
languages, Hindi, the official national language, is the most important.
In its standard form and its many dialects, it is spoken by about 43
percent of the population and is understood by a large number of others.
It is predominant in the northern and central regions. Included among
the Hindi variations is Urdu, referred to until 1947 as Hindustani or
Khari Boli, which is recognized as a separate "official" language in the
Indian constitution. Urdu is also the official language of Pakistan and
is spoken by most Indian Muslims (except in the far south and east).
Other important Indo-Aryan languages are Bengali (the official language
of the state of West Bengal and also of Bangladesh), Panjabi (the
official language of the state of Punjab and the most widely spoken
language of Pakistan), and Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assamese, and
Kashmiri (respectively, the official languages of the states of
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, Assam, and Jammu and Kashmir). Two other
languages of the Indo-Aryan family are among the 15 regarded as official
languages by the constitution: Sanskrit, a classical literary language,
and Sindhi, spoken largely in the Sind province of Pakistan and also by
Hindu refugees who came to India after partition in 1947. The list of
official languages includes four Dravidian tongues: Telugu, Tamil,
Malayalam, and Kannada, which predominate, respectively, in the southern
states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka (Compton s).
English is understood by most educated persons. While it is not one of
the 15 languages, it is officially recognized and is used, for example,
for correspondence between Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-speaking states.
It is also the language shared by the Dravidian-speaking south and the
Hindi-speaking north. Of the scores of languages not officially
recognized, many are spoken almost exclusively by tribal peoples, known
collectively as Adibasis (New World Encyclopedia).
Though a number of religions flourish in India s tolerant social
climate, four fifths of the people are Hindus. Hinduism evolved from
Vedism, the religion of the early Aryan invaders. While it recognizes
innumerable gods, they are widely regarded as diverse manifestations of
one great universal spirit. Hinduism has no standard orthodox form. It
is, in effect, what people who call themselves Hindus do in carrying out
their dharma, or religious obligations. This varies considerably from
one region and social group to another.
The social groups with which Hindus identify most strongly are their
jatis, or castes. A caste is a hereditary group whose members intermarry
only among themselves. Each has its own origin myth, traditional
occupation, rules relating to kinship, diet, and various forms of
behavior. Castes are graded in a social and ritual hierarchy in which
each expects respect from inferior groups and gives respect to superior
ones. While obviously creating disparities, the caste system is not
regarded by most Hindus as unjust. According to generally accepted
beliefs associated with reincarnation, or rebirth after death, the caste
into which one is born depends on one s karma--that is, one s
accumulated good and bad deeds in previous existences. The way to
achieve higher status in future incarnations is to accept one s station
in life and live accordingly. This is the path that may eventually lead
to salvation, called moksha, freedom from the continuous round of
rebirths (New World Encyclopedia).
Muslims, who constitute 11 percent of the population, are the largest
religious minority. Many of these followers of the monotheistic faith of
Islam are descendants of invaders from the Middle East and Central Asia
who began entering the subcontinent as early as the 8th century. Most,
however, are descendants of converts from Hinduism and other faiths. The
majority belong to the Sunnah branch of Islam, though the Shi ah sect is
well represented among Muslim trading groups of Gujarat.
Although Islam, unlike Hinduism, stresses the equality of people, the
institution of caste is so strong in the subcontinent that it has
affected the communities professing Islam and most other faiths. Thus,
most Indian Muslims intermarry within graded, castelike groups, many of
which have traditional occupations. Muslims form a majority of the
population in Jammu and Kashmir and substantial minorities in the states
of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala.
Sikhs, with 2.6 percent of the population, are predominant in the state
of Punjab. Their faith, which dates from the early 16th century,
combines aspects of Hinduism, such as belief in reincarnation, with
ideas borrowed from Islam, in particular strict belief in only one God.
A militant brotherhood, they are recognizable by their distinctive
beards and turbans. Sikhs form a prominent part of India s army and are
influential in many professions and in government (Concise).
Households often consist of more than one married couple. These joint
families are usually headed by a senior male, whose wife, mother, or
another related senior female assigns domestic chores to the women and
girls. Generally the extended family may include his unmarried children,
his younger brothers and their wives and unmarried children, his
unmarried sisters, and his married sons and grandsons and their wives
and unmarried children. In practice, however, brothers commonly separate
and form new households soon after the death of their father.
Over most of India (though not in the south or northeast), a girl
marries outside her village, usually while still in her teens. Even
where a female marries within the village, she moves to the husband s
household. Widow remarriage is frowned upon. Married couples display a
marked preference for male children. Boys are desired not only because
of their anticipated contribution to the family income but also because
sons are needed to perform certain rites at a parent s cremation. Girls,
on the other hand, are seen as a liability because they require
expensive dowries when they are married. Various state governments have
tried to discourage this practice, but often families still go into debt
to provide dowries; a family with several daughters and no sons may face
financial disaster. Boys are expected to help in the fields and girls in
the home. The freedom that girls enjoy is restricted after they reach
the age of puberty; in northern India, even among the Hindus, female
seclusion is common (New World Encyclopedia).
Most villagers are farmers. The majority own some land, usually in
scattered parcels, but a substantial number must rent all or part of the
land they farm, either for cash or for an agreed-upon share of the
harvest. The amount depends on whether the cultivator or the landlord
pays for seed and irrigation water, and on who provides the animals for
plowing. Shares typically range from one third to one half the harvest.
Many families, especially among the scheduled castes, have no land at
all, and both adults and children must sell their labor to the larger
farmers.
The simple tools used by most Indian farmers are generally made in the
villages. Plows are wooden, with short iron tips. They furrow but do not
turn the soil. Draft animals are mainly oxen in the drier regions and
water buffalo in the wetter, rice-growing areas. Both cattle and water
buffalo are milked, but yields are low. Transport is still largely by
oxcart or buffalo cart, though the use of trucks is gaining as a result
of road improvement. Tractor cultivation is rare except in Haryana and
the Punjab (Compton s).
Goods and services that are not available locally are obtained from
nearby villages, at weekly outdoor markets, in towns and cities, and at
fairs, usually held in connection with religious holidays. Payment for
goods and services provided within the village may be either in cash or
in kind. The latter type of payment, usually a portion of grain at the
time of harvest, used to be the customary rule. Most specialized-caste
families catered to a particular set of patron families, known as
jajmans, with whom they were linked by hereditary ties. This jajmani
system is breaking down over most of India, but patron-client alliances
among various castes remain a common feature of village life.
Most villages have at least a primary school offering up to six years of
instruction. Some also offer adult education classes in the evening.
While few villages can support a well-trained doctor, many have
practitioners of traditional medicine. Government-aided dispensaries are
increasingly common.
For entertainment men join their fellow caste members or those from
castes at levels close to their own to pass the evening hours smoking
and chatting. Women and girls talk at the village well and may join
groups to sing religious songs. Male youths sometimes form sports clubs
or drama groups. Village-owned radios set up in public spaces are
common, but television is rare. Traveling storytellers, musicians,
acrobats, and snake charmers relieve the drabness of life, as do
weddings, religious celebrations, trips to local fairs, and occasional
religious pilgrimages.
India s present constitution went into effect on Jan. 26, 1950. At that
time, the nation changed its status from a dominion to a federal
republic, though it remained within the Commonwealth. The governor-
general, appointed by the British Crown, was replaced by a president,
chosen by an electoral college. The president is the official chief of
state, but the office is largely ceremonial.
Village government is in the hands of a democratically elected council,
known as a panchayat, presided over by a village headman. In former days
virtually all panchayat members were men of the upper castes, usually
those who owned the most land. Now many states require that a certain
number of women and members of scheduled castes be included.
Increasingly, elections are held by secret ballot. The panchayats are
expected to work closely with the government-sponsored Community
Development Program, which has divided the entire country into community
development blocks, averaging about a hundred villages each.
Village-level workers within each block are the chief links between the
government and the villagers. They bring news to the villagers of
developments that might benefit them and report back the sentiments of
the people (Concise).
The artistic and literary heritage of India is exceptionally rich.
Probably most renowned are the country s architectural masterpieces.
These date from many different ages. The ancient Buddhist domed stupa,
or shrine, at Sanchi was probably begun by the emperor Asoka in the
mid-3rd century BC. The Kailasa Temple at Ellora was carved out of solid
rock in the 8th century. The enormous, elaborately sculptured Sun Temple
at Konarak dates from the 13th century, and the Minakshi Temple in
Madurai, with its striking outer towers and inner Hall of 1,000 Pillars,
from the 16th century. The sublime Taj Mahal at Agra was built in the
17th century by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his
favorite wife. Every major region and religious group of India has
produced works of extraordinary merit. Hindu and Jaina temples are
usually richly embellished by sculpture. Because of the Islamic
opposition to representative art, mosques are comparatively austere and
rely for adornment largely on inlaid stonework, decorative tiles,
geometric designs in stone, plaster, or wood, and ornate calligraphy
(Compton s).
Painting is relatively less developed, and much of the work of the past
has fallen victim to weather. However, the well-preserved, sensuous cave
paintings at Ajanta, dating from the 1st century BC to the 7th century
AD, demonstrate great technical proficiency at an early date. Altogether
different is the lyric and romantic style of the various schools of
miniature painting that flourished in the courts of the Mughals and the
Rajput princes in the 16th and subsequent centuries. Modern painting,
inspired by both European and Far Eastern models, has had several
internationally recognized exponents.
Classical Indian music, dance, and drama are closely linked. Their roots
go back nearly 2,000 years. Their mastery calls for great discipline and
intensive practice. Each has a conventionalized "language" that demands
considerable sophistication on the part of the audience. As with
architecture, a number of regional styles have developed. Folk music and
dance also show wide regional variations (Compton s).
The literature of India covers many fields of knowledge, but religious
and philosophical texts are particularly numerous. The oldest religious
texts, the Vedas (beginning with the Rig-Veda around 1500 BC, were
transmitted only by word of mouth for many centuries before being
committed to writing. For most Hindus the two best-known texts are the
great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , composed roughly
2,000 years ago. The former recounts the adventures of the god-king Rama
and provides models of proper conduct for both men and women. The
latter, the longest poem ever written, relates a great mythical war
involving all the peoples of ancient India. The most important portion
of that epic, the Bhagavadgita , is the principal Hindu tract on
morality and ethics (Compton s).
Indian Muslim literature covers a wide range of practical subjects.
However, the authority of the Koran, Islam s holy book, leaves little
room for religious
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